Talking about wine has now become an important custom of our society, even the simple showing off of a minimal knowledge of such label or something represents a sign of distinction, or better to say, seems to be a sign of distinction, in any group of individuals. Giving the impression of being great experts about something, to appear superior to others, even with the simple, however deprecable, purpose of humiliating one's interlocutors, seems to be one of the main characteristics of people's behaviors. Wine, unfortunately, being a trendy and common subject, is no exception to that.

 In the past few years we also had the invasion of wine “super-experts” in every channel's TV shows, as well as in magazines and newspapers, that in a sense they could also positively contribute to the spreading of wine culture, and sometimes, maybe, they also contribute in a determinant way to the increasing of confusion about this subject and to have people getting uninterested, giving the impression that wine is a beverage reserved to a group of haughty and elected individuals having their mouths always full of words which say nothing and with little wine in their glasses. It is probably natural to ask oneself whether to be a wine expert is just enough to make an abundant use of words having an “effect”, a very common custom, such as the abused term “fruity”, as well as other absolutely generic and obvious terms, which say absolutely nothing about any wine and they certainly do not describe it saved when it is supported by other specific and qualified words. We truly wish a wine is “fruity”, indeed, it is a beverage produced by the fermentation of a fruit juice, grape, and therefore it would be preoccupying, very preoccupying, in case a wine would not have any aroma resembling the ones of fruits.

 Moreover, what can be said about those comments full of pompous and sumptuous words, full of rhetorical terms, that soon after having read or heard them, one inevitably ends up asking himself or herself whether they were talking about wine or who knows about what. Sometimes they are intentionally full of terms, even inappropriate ones, which say nothing, which are sometimes ridiculous, and even beyond that, and smiling is really the least thing everyone can do. Reading or listening to those descriptions about wine, one can also end up thinking or believing wines are all the same because of the high frequency of certain terms or expressions. Nevertheless, it is not like that. Everyone having a sufficient culture about wine and tasted, while paying attention, what he or she had in the glass, knows it is not like that. There are differences from wine to wine that make each one of them unique, such as the area of origin, or cru, wines produced with the very same grapes but in different areas, even distant few kilometers one from each other, give different wines, differences which are unfortunately ignored by some summary descriptions and definitions having the sole purpose of confusing and homologating a whole category of products.

 This trend is also found, unfortunately, among consumers which try to emulate the “super-expert”, in the hope to appear like that, by repeating and filling their mouths with the very same words. This can be seen in any restaurant paying enough attention to wine, and watching what happens when a client orders his or her wine. In the beginning, mainly when he or she is in company, tries to make the choice by using “expert” terms and, sometimes, with arrogance as well, even trying to humiliate the person who is in charge of serving wine. Then, when he or she realizes that person is sufficiently competent about wine and probably has a better knowledge than his or her, there is a change in behavior and gets lost while ending up to ask advices and help to the person in charge of serving wine.

 The same is also true for the majority of things about the world of wine, in particular, the habit and the insistence of having any wine decanted, both young and aged, according to a supposed “rule” distinguishing real connoisseurs. It seems that the more a wine is important, and for important everyone may think of what he or she wants, from the preferred wine to a very expensive one, and the more it needs to be decanted. Maybe it is the decanting “ceremony” to enchant people, unfortunately most of the times it is done in a wrong way, however it should be remembered the procedure of decanting, the term itself suggests its purpose, is used to separate wine from its sediments in order to have a limpid and drinkable liquid. Many support the idea, and they certainly are not wrong, that decanting is very useful for oxygenating a wine which has spent a very long time in a bottle and this operation would be capable of “awakening” it from its torpor. It should be considered that for some wines, in particular the ones aged for a very long time, any sudden oxygenation, such as the one provoked by decanting, can irreparably damage them and, however, it dissolves in few moments the long and patient work of time. In case it is really needed to oxygenate a wine, one should consider the many types of glasses available from any producer and, thanks to their shapes and volumes, they allow a perfect oxygenation of any wine.

 The same also happens with wines produced with the “famous” grapes, the ones everyone talks about, the only ones, it seems, capable of making good wine, as well as the supposed miracles that only the fermentation and aging in cask could make on wine. There is still a strong and common belief that the quality of wine should inevitably pass for a barrique and that should be made with certain grapes. In case a wine has pronounced wood aromas therefore it certainly has quality. In case a wine is aged in a cask therefore it is important, in case it was made with certain grapes therefore it must be a great wine. These prejudices, common beliefs, seem to be very hard to change and it is sad to see that only few people, when they are about to taste a wine, pay attention to the place of origin and to the specific area where the wine was produced, once again, it should be considered as one of the real and proper factors of quality. The only positive thing is that someone is trying to ask himself or herself about those wines and look beyond that while discovering, or better to say, rediscovering, those wines produced with local grapes from certain places and that only in those places are capable of giving the very best of them.

 Of course there cannot be any dispute about personal taste and preference, indeed, it is not good what it is said to be good, but first of all, it is good what it is liked. The concept of goodness, as well as of beauty, is so abstract and undefinable that everyone has proper ways and definitions not always agreeable by others. Anyway it should be good that everyone would have his or her concept of “good” and, in particular, it should be the result of personal tastes and preferences and not other's. The next time you hear someone saying a wine is “fruity”, without giving any other specification about its quality, besides resenting of the fact it is a term which does not help at all and does not say anything, take your glass and try yourself to taste that wine, always with moderation, and let your senses to tell you about it. After all wine is a beverage which needs senses in order to be understood; words, no matter how beautiful they are, will never be right, they can only give a vague idea.

 In this column are published our reader's mail. If you have any comment or any question or just want to express your opinion about wine, send your letters to our editorial or fill in the form available at our site.

 Whenever there is a talk about the countries which made the history of wine in the world, in particular those wines which were preferred by noblemen of the many European countries and kept their fame and glory unchanged up to nowadays, Hungary certainly is one of them. The charm and elegance of one of its most renowned wines, Tokaji Aszú, known everywhere in the world written as Tokay Aszu, has been, and still is, an example of absolute greatness to which few persons are indifferent to. No matter it was Tokaji Aszú the wine to make Hungary famous in the world, its production is now just 4% of total, in the country are also produced dry wines, mainly whites, both with local grapes and international ones.

 The first historical witnesses about the cultivation of grape and the production of wine in Hungary are dated back to Roman times, when the territory where it is today located this country, was part of the Roman province of Pannonia which also included part of today's Austria. When Magyar tribes, the people which Hungarians descend from, arrived in these lands at the end of the ninth century, they found many vineyards and local people had a good knowledge about vinification techniques and therefore wine and culture of vine continued to develop. Later, during the kingdom of Bela IV, around the half of 1200's, the production of wine was considered very important. After the invasions of Mongols in 1241, king Bela IV started to rebuild Hungary and he payed particular attention on vineyards and to the production of wine. In order to succeed in that, he particularly favored everyone who had a good knowledge about wine making and that wanted to help in restoring vineyards in every devastated area. Results were very positive and at the end of his kingdom there were huge quantities of wine exported from the cities of Eger and Sopron.

Hungary

 Nevertheless it will be Tokaj's wine (Tokay) to make Hungary famous in Europe. The first evidence about this wine is dated back to the end of fifteenth century, and it is likely at those times it was produced as dry. It was only in the seventeenth century Tokaji Aszú acquired the fame and prestige it certainly deserved. In 1641 was emanated the first law regulating the production of this wine in the region of Tokaj-Hegyalja and it set norms about the selection of places where vineyards could be planted, norms on how to build terraces, irrigation systems, manuring and cultivation as well as periods in which this practices should be done. Works in the vineyards were to be completed within the 20th of August, whereas the official harvesting date was on the 28th of October. Moreover in 1660 was discovered the so called noble rot (Botrytis Cinerea) and its effects on wine production and therefore special laws were set for the production of Tokaji Aszú.

 The fame and notoriety of Tokaji Aszú began to spread when in France arrived at the court of king Louis XIV, some bottles of this wine presented as a gift by Ferenc Rákóczi, in the hope of obtaining support and help for the independence of Hungary. The wine was so appreciated that soon became famous everywhere in Europe and considered as the best sweet wine. The production of this wine was suddenly interrupted in 1870 because of phylloxera that here, as well as everywhere else, devastated vineyards. It was only in 1881 they started to plant new vines resistant to phylloxera and the production of wine resumed its development.

 In 1947, with the advent of the communist monopoly system, the historical National Association of Hungarian Viticulturists and of Wine Communities, established in 1830 with the goal of experimenting and researching in order to improve the wine industry and to promote its development, was forced to suspend its activity and the production of wine passed under the control of the State. The production and trading of wine, produced in huge quantities and very low quality, was mainly controlled by the monopoly system and most of the wine was generally exported in the former Soviet Union. Hungarian enology experienced a long recession period characterized by scarce technology and low quality, the fame and prestige of its renowned Tokaji Aszú was vanished in a very short time.

 At the end of the communist era and the subsequent establishment of democracy, Hungarian enology resumed its development also thanks to the arrive of foreign investors who bought wineries and resumed wine production while introducing new and modern wine technologies, aware of the huge possibilities the country could offer in the wine production. The interest of new investors was particularly focused on the production of Tokaji Aszú and today, despite the fact production techniques has been slightly changed, this wine is rightly acquiring again that fame and prestige it had in the past centuries.

 The current Hungarian quality system is regulated by laws emanated in 1990 which replaced the ones set in 1970. Current laws are mainly based on directives emanated by the European Union. The last revision of wine laws in the country was in 1997 and, in certain aspects, the system is similar to French's Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée. Hungarian laws define wine regions and their boundaries, allowed grape species, cultivation and vinification techniques and procedures, as well as mandatory information to be written on labels.

 Wine production in Hungary is mainly about white wine and, despite the fact most of the wine is produced in regions located in the southern part of the country, the most important productions are from regions located to the north. The wine regions of the country are currently 22 and only eight of them are considered as important, both for historical reasons and for quality. Undoubtedly the most prestigious and famous one of them all is Tokaj-Hegyalja region, where the renowned Tokaji Aszú is produced, located to the north-eastern part of the country, bordering Slovakia. In this region, besides the famous sweet wine, is also produced white dry wine mainly with Furmint, Hárslevelü and Muscat Lunel grapes, the same used for Aszú. Among the most interesting wines produced in this region are to be mentioned late harvests wines and Szamorodni, literally meaning “as it comes”, produced with grapes not sufficiently affected by noble rot and therefore not suited for the production of Aszú. Szamorodni is produced as dry (száraz) or sweet (édes). The other seven wine regions include, to the north of the country, Eger and Mátra Foothills, to the west, near Balaton Lake, Somló and Badacsony, and to the south, Alföld (great plains), Szekszárd and Villány-Siklós. In Hungary are cultivated autochthonous grapes as well as “international” grapes. Among international white berried grapes, the most common ones are Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon, whereas for red berried grapes are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot and Pinot Noir. In the country are also present many species considered autochthonous as well as other grapes common in many countries of Central Europe. Among white berried grapes are cultivated Furmint, Hárslevelü, Kéknyelü, Muscat Lunel (the name used here to refer to muscat blanc à petit grains), Olaszrizling (Welschriesling), Orémus, Szürkebarát (Pinot Gris) and Tramini (Gewürztraminer). Red berried grapes include Kadarka, Kékfrankos (name used here to refer to Blaufränkisch), Kékoporto and Zweigelt.

 The region of Eger is pretty famous thanks to the production of a red dry wine, Egri Bikavér (literally “bull's blood of Eger”) mainly produced with Kékfrankos grape and sometimes Kadarka as well. The name of this wine originates from a legend of the half of 1500's. It seems that during Turk's siege to the fortress of Eger, Magyars, while they were trying to repel the enemy's attack and fighting with particular fierce, they drunk huge quantities of red wine in order to withstand to battle's efforts. The legend goes that when Turks faced Magyar warriors having their beards stained of red, they thought their fierce and skill in the battle was because they drunk bull's blood and, scared by that, they retreated. The region of Eger also produces light red wines, although it is Egri Bikavér the most famous one, not only in this region, but also in all Hungary. In the region of Mátra Foothills, as opposed to Eger, is mainly produced white wine, sometimes of good quality, with Olaszrizling, Muscat Lunel, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon grapes.

 In the region of Somló, among the tiniest wine areas of the country, are being produced white wines according to Hungarian traditional techniques, with long aging times in cask and sometimes also oxidized. No matter these wines are pretty “unusual” and certainly different from what modern taste would expect from a modern white wine, in Hungary they are considered as very typical products to be perfectly matched to local foods. In the Badacsony region, in the northern part of the Balaton Lake, are mainly produced white wines with Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Szürkebarát and Olaszrizling grapes. The region of Alföld, the largest wine area of the country, are found more than the half of Hungarian vineyards and production is mainly about huge quantities of coarse wines mainly produced with Chardonnay and Merlot grape. The region of Szekszárd, considered as one of the most important of the country, mainly produces red wines, certainly to be considered among the best ones of the country. The main grape of the region is Kadarka, however there also are international grapes. Even the region of Villány-Siklós, the most southern of them all, is an excellent red wine producer, to be considered among the best ones of the country. The production makes use of local grapes, such as Kékfrankos, Kékoporto and Zweigelt, as well as international grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Among the regions producing dry wine, Szekszárd and Villány-Siklós are to be considered as the most advanced ones according to a technological point of view; in these two regions producers often make use of barriques and modern equipments, producing wines that meet the modern taste the most.

 The wine which best represents Hungary and of which Hungarians, rightly, are proud of, is certainly Tokaji Aszú, or Tokay Aszu, as it is often written outside Hungary. For many centuries this wine has been considered among the best wines of the world, preferred by the majority of noble courts of Europe. The zar of Russia Peter the Great even had an army detached in the region of Tokay which was in charge to get and escort to the court sufficient quantities of Tokaji Aszú. King of France Louis XIV defined this wine as “vinum regum, rex vinorum”, that is “wine of the kings, king of wines”. For many centuries Tokaji Aszú worthily rivaled with the famed French's Sauternes, the renowned Constantia from South Africa and sweet wines from Germany and Austria, and what it is absolutely certain is that Tokaji Aszú is the best and most extraordinary wine produced in Eastern Europe.

 After the inevitable decline, just like other European countries, because of the fearful phylloxera which destroyed vineyards, as well as devastations caused by the two world wars and, lastly, the era of the communist regime which monopolized the production of wine, it is from about ten years this extraordinary wine is reviving the great glory of the past. Thanks to the investments of foreign companies and to the advent of democracy in the country, viticulture was reorganized and its development is so rapid and convincing that in the forthcoming years it is easy to think about a high quality production of Hungarian wine, as a matter of fact, the Tokaji Aszú currently produced is to be considered as a wine of extraordinary quality.

 The wine is produced in the Tokaj-Hegyalja region and “Aszú” is the term used in Hungary to refer to “dried grapes affected by noble rot”, whereas “Tokaji” simply means something, in this case wines, from Tokaj. Tokaji Aszú has been defined in the course of centuries as the “Sauternes of Eastern Europe”, however this definition is certainly inadequate, because it was in this very region where a wine produced with grapes affected by noble rot was produced for the first time in the history of enology. As it frequently happens, the most sensational discoveries of humans are the result of lucky conditions or mistakes and Tokaji Aszú was no exception to this rule. The tradition of sweet wine production is widely documented by witnesses which are dated back to the middle age. Around the half of the seventeenth century a priest, Máté Szepsi Laczkó, began experimenting with Furmint grape, an autochthonous Hungarian grape. At one point the priest decided to experiment the drying of grapes on the vine and, unfortunately, or luckily, at the moment of harvesting, one of the many incursions of Turks in the territory took place. Hungarians were forced to take arms and to forget about their daily activities, including harvesting. When they returned back, at the end of autumn, the grapes were dried and mouldy. Szepsi Laczkó did not lose confidence and decided to harvest those mouldy grapes anyway and with the little must he could make from them produced some wine, soon after he was surprised by the extraordinary taste and the rich aromas of that wine. The priest then decided to add this nectar to a regular dry wine he produced the year before and therefore he gave origin to a myth still alive nowadays. Tokaji Aszú was born.

 The main grape used for the production of this wine is Furmint to which is usually added Hárslevelü and Muscat Lunel, and since about ten years, the Orémus grape is added as well, a crossing between Furmint and Bouvier. The essential condition for the production of Tokaji Aszú is the presence of noble rot (Botrytis Cinerea) in the grapes, and the development is ensured by the favorable climatic and environmental conditions of the Tokaj-Hegyalja region, in particular near the city of Tokaj.

 The production of the wine is amazing and laborious at the same time. The process begins with harvesting, berry by berry, the grapes affected by noble rot and they are promptly sent to the winery in order to be pressed and reduced in a paste. The rest of the grapes not affected by noble rot are harvested and used to make a dry wine that will be used as a base wine. At this point begins the creation of the real and proper Tokaji Aszú and the final product is determined by the quantity of “Aszú paste” added to the base wine which is measured in puttonyos. The puttony is the traditional basket used for harvesting Aszú grapes and contains about 25 kilograms of grapes (about 55 lbs.), equivalent to about 20 liters of Aszú paste (5.2 gallons). The number of puttonyos added to the base wine determines the sweetness of the final wine. The preparation is usually made in gönci, traditional casks having a capacity of 136 liters (about 35.9 gallons), where base wine and Aszú paste are blended together. The number written in Tokaji Aszú's label indicates the number of puttonyos added to the gönci. A Tokaji Aszú 4 puttonyos is therefore produced with about 100 liters of Aszú paste (26.4 gallons) and about 36 liters of base wine (9.5 gallons). The highest number of puttonyos for the production of this wine is 6 which is capable of producing an extremely sweet wine, however, thanks to the natural acidity of Furmint and Hárslevelü grapes, the balance is always excellent and not sickly at all.

Type Residual Sugar 3 puttonyos 6 - 9% 4 puttonyos 9 - 12% 5 puttonyos 12 - 15% 6 puttonyos 15 - 18% Tokaji Aszú Eszencia More than 18% Tokaji Eszencia 40 - 70%
Sweetness levels of Tokaji wines

 Currently Tokaji Aszú is produced in steel tanks instead of wood casks and the number of puttonyos is determined according to the quantity of residual sugar, as shown in table . The period of time in which Aszú paste remains in contact with wine depends by the quantity added and its concentration: usually this time goes from eight hours to three days. At the end of this process the wine is separated from Aszú paste and fermentation begins in historical caves dug underground, very moist, cold and with sides perennially covered by mould. In these conditions fermentation can last months and even years thanks to the low temperature and to the high quantities of sugar present in the wine. Tokaji Aszú must age, according to law, for at least two years in oak casks and for at least one year in bottle before being commercialized. Tokaji Aszú is traditionally sold in typical Hungarian bottles made of transparent glass and with a capacity of 500 ml (16.9 fl.oz.). According to the choices made by producers, during the aging in casks, the ullage can be high and therefore leaving the cask level low while favoring the formation of a bacterial and yeast layer which develops on the wine's surface. This layer, comparable to the so called “flor” essential in Spanish Jerez, contribute to the preservation of wine while giving it an evident complex character.

 Tokaji wines are magnificently completed by two other types, considered as real rarities, great sensorial experiences: Tokaji Eszencia and Tokaji Aszú Eszencia, often written as Essencia or Essence. Between the two, Tokaji Eszencia is the most looked for and complex one, as well as the most expensive of them all. In particularly favorable years, Aszú grapes are left in tanks and the must is uniquely the result of the weight of the grapes themselves and having an incredible quantity of sugar of more than 45%. This pure essence of grapes is so rich in sugar that even yeasts have some difficulties during fermentation; the process is extremely slow and sometimes the wine does not ferment at all. The fermentation is so slow that these wines usually have alcohol by volume from 2 to 5%. Tokaji Eszencia is an explosion of aromas and flavors, with persistences reaching incredible levels. Tokaji Aszú Eszencia is produced by adding a Tokaji Aszú 6 puttonyos to Tokaji Eszencia. The result is an extraordinary wine, rare and produced only in the best years. According to law Tokaji Aszú Eszencia must be aged for at least five years of which at least three in cask.

 Among the many types of wines, the ones which are capable more than any other else to evoke rich emotions and to excite senses the most are probably sweet and botrytised wines. In the course of centuries these wines have always been appreciated and looked for in every place, considered real and proper nectars for their aromatic qualities and for their enchanting and intense flavors. They were also considered as medicines and reconstituents; it is often cited in ancient documents that doctors prescribed these wines as a cure. The charm of these wines could also be because of the fact they are usually produced in limited quantities and in tiny areas, two factors which certainly contribute to make rare, and therefore precious and valuable, these genuine nectars of grape.

 The production of sweet wines, with the exception of sweet sparkling wines, are always based on the usage of grapes which lost part of their water while obtaining a concentration of juice and a higher quantity of sugar. The reduction of water in grape's berries is a natural process which takes place in two different ways: by leaving bunches on the vine and waiting for berries to get dried, or to harvest grape when it reached full maturation and to let it dry in protected and well aerated rooms, placed in mats or hanged. The most common method is the one of allowing bunches to get dried on the vine, mainly in those places where particular climatic conditions promote the development of a mould, apparently a negative factor, which in reality adds unique and extraordinary characteristics to the wine. This particular mould, to be considered as a real and proper blessing, whose scientific name is Botrytis Cinerea, is capable of giving grapes where it gets developed, truly unique aromas and flavors and, because of its effects, it greatly contributes to water reduction in grape's berries.

 The development of this mould, usually called noble rot, exclusively takes place in areas where particular environmental and climatic conditions allow its formation on the skin of grape's berries. The effect of noble rot in sweet wines, for this reason they are also called botrytised wines, is always a positive factor because it is capable of giving wine unique and extraordinary aromas and flavors, very difficult to explain with words or with the help of analogy, and they become absolutely unmistakable after having perceived them for the first time. The most common and frequent definitions used to describe the aromas added by noble rot to wine include honey, spices, apricot, hazelnut, toffee and caramel; honestly no one of them can describe it fully, maybe they can just give a vague idea, what it is certain is that aroma of Botrytis Cinerea is unique, pleasing, elegant and very appreciated. This precious mould is called muffa nobile in Italian, pourriture noble in French, edelfäule in German and Aszú in Hungarian; in every country is always and however welcome in vineyards and allows the production of great, magnificent wines.

	Sweet wines: sweet moments of life

 The first witness about the discovery of noble rot's effects on wine is dated back to the half of seventeenth century by a Hungarian priest, but it seems it was already known to Greeks more than 2000 years ago. The development of noble rot, which needs particular environmental and climatic conditions, in particular favorable conditions of humidity, is frequent in certain areas of Hungary, Austria, Germany, France, Italy, Australia and North America. The development of noble rot is pretty unpredictable, it requires good humidity for its formation and a dry climate in order to survive. The repetition of these climatic conditions and in subsequent days, in particular cool and moist nights followed by warm and dry days, ensure the development of noble rot which usually appears on grapes after two or three days. Noble rot usually prefers white berried grapes having a pretty thick skin and with compact bunches, and in case climatic conditions are not favorable, in particular when humidity is excessive and prolonged, it could easily degenerate into another type of mould having opposite effects: grey rot, a factor which irremediably ruins grapes and therefore cannot be used for producing wine. The development of noble rot in vineyards truly is a preoccupying event for every viticulturist because in case conditions are not favorable, precious and valuable grapes can turn into unusable and rotten grapes, a preoccupation that ends only after harvesting.

 When the spores of Botrytis Cinerea get in contact with the moist skin of grape, usually transported by wind, they start consuming the water on skin's surface and therefore they increase in dimension. At this point begins the development of a germinal tube which holes the skin in the aim of searching nourishment. As the mould gets into the berry, and also thanks to the huge quantity of nutrients, the development is pretty rapid and the surface of the skin gets literally covered by noble rot. Holes made by spores in the skin promote the reduction of water, therefore concentrating sugar and aromatic substances. The effect of noble rot continues by transforming some substances present in grapes and get mixed to them therefore adding its aroma and its flavor. At the end of the process grape's berries have a look which is not certainly inviting, apparently rotten, but on the inside took place unique magic that will give origin to a divine nectar.

 Typical colors of sweet and botrytised wines depend, first of all, by the species of grapes used for their production. In sweet red wines, such as Recioto della Valpolicella or Sagrantino di Montefalco Passito, the range of colors is pretty common, usually ruby and garnet red, very deep and most of the times impenetrable by light, with nuances of garnet red. In sweet white wines the range is wider and colors can go from golden yellow to amber yellow, sometimes very dark. The color of sweet white wines mainly depends by the way grapes were dried as well as the type of grape. Generally speaking sweet wines produced with grapes dried after harvesting usually have deeper and darker colors and tend to amber yellow, such as Vin Santo produced in Umbria and Tuscany or Moscato di Pantelleria Passito. It should be however remembered that amber color could also be the sign of oxidation, sometimes wanted by the producer in order to give wine particular organoleptic qualities.

 Sweet white wines produced with grapes dried on the vine and, in particular, grapes affected by noble rot, such as Sauternes, German and Austrian sweet wines, as well as botrytised wines produced in Orvieto (Umbria), are characterized by splendid golden yellow colors, brilliant and intense, however amber yellow is frequent as well, such as the one of Tokaji Aszú. The color of sweet white wines tends to get darker with the aging in bottle, changing from golden yellow to dark golden yellow and then to amber yellow.

 Aromatic characteristics of sweet wines produced with dried grapes are pretty complex and change according to the type. A characteristic which is usually common to every sweet wine produced with dried grapes is the richness and intensity of aromas, sometimes seems that every time the glass is being smelt a new aroma is coming out from it and the list seems to be endless. In sweet wines produced with red berried grapes will be frequent aromas of red and black skinned fruit, such as plum, strawberry, blackberry, black cherry, cherry, blueberry, raspberry and black currant, sometimes also perceived as jams made with those fruits. Dried flowers can be found as well, such as violet and rose, as well as particular aromas, such as chocolate and cocoa, and spices, such as cardamom, cinnamon and vanilla, in case the wine was aged in cask.

 In sweet white wines the aromatic range is certainly more variegated and complex. In sweet wines produced with aromatic grapes, such as Moscato di Pantelleria, Malvasia delle Lipari and Moscato Passito di Chambave, the aroma of grape will be very pronounced, often resembling raisin. In wines produced with grapes affected by noble rot, such as Sauternes, Tokaji Aszú and Muffato di Orvieto as well as German and Austrian sweet wines, the aromatic effect of Botrytis Cinerea will be evident and often very pronounced. The pleasing and elegant aroma of noble rot is, like we already said, pretty hard to define with words or with the help of analogy, many have compared it to the one of honey, spices, apricot, hazelnut, toffee and caramel, no one of them really resemble to it, maybe, it could be defined as a combination of them all in different proportions.

 In these wines is the aromatic range of fruit to dominate, most of the time it is dried fruit and jams, such as apricot, peach, quince, pear, apple and fig, as well as tropical fruit, such as banana, litchi, mango and pineapple. Common are also aromas of flowers, often dried, such as acacia, orange blossom and broom. The aromatic series in sweet white wines continues with aromas of candied fruit, in particular orange peel and other citrus fruits, honey of many types of flowers, caramel, chocolate, croissant, almond and hazelnut. Sometimes can also be found aromas of spices, such as cinnamon, anise and vanilla, in particular when the wine was aged in wood containers. Typical aromas in sweet white wines are countless and, in general terms, very complex, in wines aged in bottle for many years the aromatic range gets richer, often so surprising that one would not even expect to find them in a wine.

 As a sweet wine enters the mouth, it is more likely the impact is pretty surprising. Its flavors are usually intense, having a good correspondence to the aromas perceived by the nose, sweetness is clearly perceivable from the very beginning and a pleasing sensation of velvety roundness pervade the mouth. A pleasing characteristic of these wines is their very long taste olfactory persistence, like no other wine. It is not rare to find a sweet wine with a taste olfactory persistence longer than 15 seconds and sometimes they can even be measured in minutes instead of seconds.

 Despite the fact this premise could make sweet wines appear like a heavenly nectars, and they certainly can be like that, what makes these wines pleasing and extraordinary to the taste is their balance. Because of the presence of sugar, these wines could taste sickly and syrupy in case they are not properly balanced by other components. Because of the different quantities of substances present in white and red sweet wines, it is necessary to distinguish balance of the two types. The characteristic common to both is certainly alcohol and sugar, whereas in sweet red wines it is common the presence of tannins, and therefore of the tactile sensation of astringency; in white sweet wines the quantity of acid is higher, usually can be appreciated to the taste as well.

 The critical factor in sweet wines is represented by the quantity of residual sugar and from this factor also depends the whole balance. Alcohol, which basically has a sweet taste, partially has a role in the balance of sugar as its pseudo caloric action lowers the relative perception of sugar. In sweet red wines, where tannins can be found, sugar has a balancing function for astringency as it basically tends to attenuate it, the same function is also done by alcohol. Moreover it should be remembered sugar tends to slow down the perception of astringency. In sweet white wines it will be acidity to play an important role for balance. Sweetness and acidity tend to balance one each other, sugar will therefore balance a very acid wine, whereas acid will avoid a wine to taste sickly or syrupy. This is the specific case of German sweet wines, despite the fact they have a high acidity, they are very balanced thanks to the mutual tendency of these two components to balance each other: the wine will never be sickly nor acid, but perfectly and pleasingly balanced.

 In this practical application on sweet and botrytised wines we will use three wines having particular characteristics: an aromatic sweet wines, a sweet wine and a botrytised wine. We will examine a Moscato di Pantelleria Passito, a Vin Santo from Umbria or Tuscany, and a Muffato di Orvieto. Despite there is a very personal preference about serving temperatures for sweet wines, in our case we will taste the wines at a temperature of 14° C (57° F) in order not to penalize the development of aromas and without excessively enhancing sweetness. In the evaluation of appearance the three wines will have very different colors whereas “consistency” and viscosity will seem to be the same: by rotating the glass it will be noted a higher density of the liquid if compared to any other wine. Moscato di Pantelleria Passito will show an amber yellow color tending to a pale tint; Vin Santo will be the one having a deeper and more intense color compared to the others, in this wine the amber yellow color will be darker and deeper. The Muffato wine will show a brilliant and intense golden yellow color.

 To the nose the three wines will offer very different olfactory perceptions, however they will all be characterized by a strong intensity of aromas. In the Moscato di Pantelleria Passito it will be perceived, in the beginning, a pronounced and pleasing aroma of grape, a primary characteristic of the wine, followed by aromas of dried fruit and jam, such as dried apricot, candied fruit, peach jam, almond, dried fig, citrus fruit peel and orange marmalade. Moreover will be perceived aromas of tropical fruit such as litchi. The aromas of Vin Santo will seem to be more complex and in particular it will be perceived a clear aroma of fig jam and caramel, as well as aromas of jams, such as apricot and peach, and dried fruit, such as dried fig, almond, dried apricot and raisin. Other aromas that can be found in Vin Santo include honey and vanilla, in case the wine was aged in casks, according to the traditional process for the production of this wine. In the Muffato di Orvieto the aroma of noble rot will clearly be perceivable from the very beginning. This aroma, truly particular, is pretty hard to describe by means of words, however it is easily recognizable after having perceived it for the fist time. The aromatic series of botrytised wine continues with intense aromas of dried apricot, honey, apricot and peach jam, candied fruit, orange peel, as well as orange blossom and broom. Aromas of tropical fruit can be perceived as well, such as banana, pineapple and litchi.

 During the gustatory analysis, the three wines will be noticed for their common characteristic: sweetness. This taste will be the first one to be perceived and there will be a clear and strong sensation of roundness in the oral cavity, a sensation almost syrupy without being sickly. In all three wines the correspondence to the nose will be truly convincing: the pleasing aromas perceived to the nose have now become flavors. Then it will be evaluated the balance and the relations among alcohol, sugar and acidity: despite the fact sweetness will be the main gustatory characteristic of the three wines, particular attention will be paid to the role played by the pseudo caloric sensation of alcohol that will tend to diminish its perception, as well as acidity, and each one of these wines has a different quantity of acid, that will have the function of balancing sweetness. The most surprising characteristic of the three wine will probably be their taste olfactory persistence, also known as PAI (Intense Aromatic Persistence). Flavors and tastes will be clearly perceivable even after having swallowed the wine and they will even continue to be perceivable after a truly unusual length of time, not common for other wines, often measurable in minutes instead of seconds.

 Cultivation of vine and production of wine have very ancient origins in Abruzzo and it is likely that were Etruscans to introduce vine in the lands of this region. The wine produced in Abruzzo has always been praised in the course of history, Greeks were probably the first ones to praise its qualities and soon after they were followed by Romans. Abruzzo is a region whose territory is mainly composed by mountains, to the west there are Apennines, of which Gran Sasso and Maiella are the most important mountain systems, and from which take origin a vast highland that spreads for most of the region's territory, whereas to the east the region meets the Adriatic sea. It is just in the inner part of Abruzzo, in the province of L'Aquila, to the feet of the southern side of Gran Sasso, there is Ofena where Luigi Cataldi Madonna winery is located.

A view from Luigi Cataldi Madonna winery

 The winery was established in 1920 and in 1968 began an important renewal process started by Antonio Cataldi Madonna, who worked in order to plant new vineyards and to renew winery's structures and resources. Currently the winery is run by his son, Luigi Cataldi Madonna, who continues the important process of qualifying winery's products by means of a working philosophy whose goal is to safeguarding and enhancing the specific characteristics of the territory. Ofena, the city where the winery is located, is in a mountain's valley at 380 meters of altitude (1246 feet), to the feet of Gran Sasso, and which is traditionally called “oven of Abruzzo”. Thanks to the exceptional exposition to sun rays and to the sensible thermal variations, this area has remarkable possibilities in wine making, also thanks to the composition of the soil.

 It is more likely this territory represents one of the most ancient sites of Montepulciano, the renowned grape used for the production of the generous red wines of Abruzzo as well as the interesting Cerasuolo, whose fame seems to be emerged at the end of the sixteenth century thanks to the enhancement of its culture done by the Grand Duke of Tuscany Francesco de' Medici. However it must be remembered Montepulciano is an autochthonous grape of this region, as well as being the most common grape in Abruzzo, and researches about vine's DNA have proved there is no connection with Sangiovese grape, as opposed to a hypothesis supporting the ides of it being introduced from Tuscany, in particular from the city of Montepulciano. It seems that the grape was named like that because some wine merchants confused the wine produced with this grape with the Vino Nobile di Montepulciano.

	Cataldi Madonna winery produces three different styles of Montepulciano d'Abruzzo

 According to some historical documents dated back to the half of 1900's about the agricultural activity of the region, it is clear the importance of the viticulture done in the province of L'Aquila in regard to quality, and in particular in the area of Ofena, not much productive in terms of quantities, but interesting for its possibilities in wine production. Winery's philosophy is oriented towards the full emphasizing of the viticultural possibilities of the territory as well as the optimal agricultural management and the work done in vineyards. Luigi Cataldi Madonna's vineyards have a surface of 24 hectares (59 acres), 7 of which were planted in 1968, whereas the rest is characterized by recent plantings. Winery's vineyards are all planted in the highland to the feet of Gran Sasso, at an altitude of 380 meters (1246 feet). Macerone, Cona, Pie' delle Vigne are the names of the places where the vineyards are located and, sometimes, as in the specific case of Pie' delle Vigne, they are specific crus that also name the wine. The microclimate of the highland is characterized by sensible thermal variations.

 The soil is calcareous-clayey, with slightly differences between the many locations and that also affect the productive strategies of the winery as well as the wines produced. For example, the soil of Pie' delle Vigne, has the same physical-chemical constitution, and it is less fertile, therefore vines have less vigor and a higher fruit concentration. The density of plantings ranges from 2000 and 5000 vines per hectare, yields are generally low and limited, in particular 30-34 quintals/hectare for Pecorino grape, 50-60 quintals/hectare for Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Tonì, 60-70 quintals/hectare for Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Cerasuolo Pie' delle Vigne. The grapes varieties cultivated by the winery are Montepulciano, whose proportion is planned to increase according to winery's plans, Trebbiano d'Abruzzo, the autochthonous Pecorino and Cabernet Sauvignon.

 Wines produced by Cataldi Madonna include many types, according to a productive differentiation of modern conception in respect of tradition while meeting the choices and tastes of consumers. Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Tonì, white Pecorino IGT Alto Tirino and Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Cerasuolo Pie' delle Vigne are the main crus which fully represent the winery's philosophy. The first wine is the result of an accurate selection of grapes and a proper aging, obtaining a Montepulciano having full body and elegance. Pecorino, name of the homonymous and ancient grape, is particularly resistant in the mountain areas of central Apennines, is a sort of challenge, the one of keeping tradition alive while giving the wine a modern interpretation. The same conception, and certainly proud of the winery, is Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Cerasuolo Pie' delle Vigne, an ancient and truly typical wine of the mountain areas of the region. Cataldi Madonna's production is completed by base products such as Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC, Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Cerasuolo DOC and Trebbiano d'Abruzzo DOC. Moreover the winery also produces two interesting and particular red wines, Occhiorosso, an Alto Tirino IGT mainly produced with Cabernet Sauvignon and a small quantity of Montepulciano, and Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Malandrino, produced, according to the DOC disciplinary, with Montepulciano grape as well as a small quantity of other grapes, in this specific case, Cabernet Sauvignon. Luigi Cataldi Madonna's wines are commercialized in every region of Italy, whereas the commercialization in foreign countries include United States of America, England, Ireland, Germany, Belgium, France, Luxembourg and Netherlands.